Stellar Sea Lion
Background
What is the morphology and life history of Steller sea lions?
Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) are the largest members of the sea lion family (Otariidae) and are the only species in the genus Eumetopias (COSEWIC 2013). Males and females differ in size and appearance, with adult females reaching between 2.1 and 2.4 meters in length and weigh around 250 kilograms, while adult males grow up to 3.1 meters and weigh up to 800 kilograms (COSEWIC 2013). Pups typically weigh between 16 and 23 kilograms at birth (COSEWIC 2013). The species has a polygynous breeding system, where dominant males establish and defend territories and mate with multiple females (COSEWIC 2013). Steller sea lions tend to go back to the rookery where they were born in order to reproduce (COSEWIC 2013).
Steller sea lions live in the coastal waters of the North Pacific Ocean. Specifically, their range extends from California to Alaska, and across to Japan (COSEWIC 2013). They usually remain close to coastal areas during the summertime, but may travel farther offshore during winter (COSEWIC 2013). Within Canada, the species is restricted to British Columbia (COSEWIC 2013).
Steller sea lions use breeding sites called rookeries during the reproductive season. Throughout the year, they use haulout sites for resting between feeding trips (DFO 2020). Although they are not considered to be migratory, individuals can move between coastal regions in the North Pacific (COSEWIC 2013).
What is the current conservation status of Steller sea lions?
In Canada, Steller sea lions are classified as Special Concern under the Species at Risk Act (SARA) (COSEWIC 2013). This designation reflects concerns about the species’ limited number of breeding sites and vulnerability to human disturbance, even though the population of Steller sea lions has increased in recent decades (COSEWIC 2013).
The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) first assessed the species as Not at Risk in 1987, but it was later reassessed and listed as Special Concern in 2003, and again in 2013 (COSEWIC 2013).
How many individuals are estimated to remain in the wild in Canada?
Aerial population surveys in 2013 estimate that approximately 39,200 Steller sea lions occur in Canadian waters during the breeding season (DFO 2020). Surveys in the winter of 2009 and 2010, estimated around 48,500 individuals, as sea lions from nearby regions move into Canadian waters (DFO 2020).
Species Background
Key biological and ecological information for freshwater turtle species in Canada.
Common Name
Wood turtle
Species
Glyptemys insculpta
Lifespan
Known to live more than 50 years, more research is required.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Description
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Habitat Needs
Most terrestrial Canadian turtle species. Clear meandering rivers with sandy or gravel bottoms, and upland areas such as adjacent forests, meadows, and fields.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common Name
Spotted turtle
Species
Clemmys guttata
Lifespan
Known to live over 30 years, maximum age for females believed to be 110 for females, and 65 for males.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Description
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Habitat Needs
Preference for shallow, slow moving aquatic habitats, soft bottoms, and both aquatic and terrestrial basking areas. Habitat includes fens, bogs, marshes, and shallow streams.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common Name
Spiny softshell turtle
Species
Apalone spinifera
Lifespan
Thought to be more than 50 years, though research is limited.
(COSEWIC 2016)
Description
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Habitat Needs
Aquatic habitats including rivers, lakes, and marshy creeks. Preference for aquatic habitats with a soft bottom, and limited aquatic vegetation. Overwintering sites can be found in well oxygenated areas.
(COSEWIC 2016)
Common Name
Blanding’s turtle
Species
Emydoidea blandingii
Lifespan
Known to live past 83 years, sexual maturity can take up to 25 years.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Description
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Habitat Needs
Preference for shallow vegetated wetlands with soft organic bottoms and basking areas. Often found in clean aquatic habitats with slow moving water.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common Name
Northern map turtle
Species
Graptemys geographica
Lifespan
Largely unknown. Sexual maturity does not happen until at least 10 years of age.
(COSEWIC 2012)
Description
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Habitat Needs
Almost exclusively aquatic. Uses both lakes and rivers. Preference for muddy bottoms, and abundant aquatic vegetation. Basking sites such as rocks and dead logs in the water are required.
(COSEWIC 2012)
Common Name
Painted turtle
Species
Chrysemys picta
Lifespan
Exceeds 60 years, though maximum age is unknown.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Description
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Habitat Needs
Shallow, slow-moving freshwater bodies. Prefer soft bottoms, and plenty of basking areas. Typically hibernate in mud. They use soil as nesting areas adjacent to water bodies.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Common Name
Eastern musk turtle
Species
Sternotherus odoratus
Lifespan
Unknown. A known wild turtle dated to 28 years old. A known captive turtle dated to over 54 years old. Maturity happens between 5-9 years of age.
(Government of Canada, 2024)
Description
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Habitat Needs
Shallow wetlands, slow moving streams, stagnant water, connected to larger water bodies. Highly aquatic species. Found in soft-bottom areas, never rocky. Require vegetation in habitat.
(Government of Canada, 2024)
Common Name
Common snapping turtle
Species
Chelydra serpentina
Lifespan
Estimated to be 40 years, with anecdotal data saying more than 50 years. Ultimately more research needs to be done.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Description
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Habitat Needs
Preference for aquatic areas with slow moving water, soft bottom, and dense aquatic vegetation. They use adjacent terrestrial areas.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Table summary and trends:
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All require freshwater aquatic areas, most species often utilize adjacent land. General preference for slow-moving water bodies with soft bottoms, basking areas, and aquatic vegetation.
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Research on lifespan is extremely limited, many species still have an unknown maximum age.
What is the current conservation status of freshwater turtles?
All eight native species have populations which are at risk.
Two native species have been extirpated in Canada: the Western Pond Turtle (Actinemys marmorata) historically found in southern British Columbia, and the Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina) (COSEWIC 2023).
Common Name
Wood turtle
Glyptemys insculpta
Species
Conservation status
Threatened
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Notes
Nova Scotia has the highest population across the provinces.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Range
ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common Name
Spotted turtle
Clemmys guttata
Species
Conservation status
Endangered
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Notes
Only two confirmed historical records of this species in Quebec.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Range
ON
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common Name
Spiny softshell turtle
Apalone spinifera
Species
Conservation status
Endangered
(COSEWIC 2016)
Notes
The species was previously more widespread around the Great Lakes. The Ontario subpopulation is more abundant.
(COSEWIC 2016)
Range
ON, QC
(COSEWIC 2016)
Common Name
Blanding’s turtle
Emydoidea blandingii
Species
Conservation status
Endangered
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Notes
Only found within a small area in Nova Scotia, and this population is considered to be more endangered than other Canadian populations.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Range
ON, QC, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common Name
Northern map turtle
Graptemys geographica
Species
Conservation status
Special Concern
(COSEWIC 2012)
Notes
Found from the Great Lakes east to Montreal.
(COSEWIC 2012)
Range
ON, QC
(COSEWIC 2012)
Common Name
Painted turtle
Chrysemys picta
Species
Conservation status
Endangered (western subspecies), Special concern (midland, and eastern subspecies)
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Notes
Western populations (BC to MB) are in poorer condition than other Canadian populations.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Range
BC, AB, SK, MB, ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Common Name
Eastern musk turtle
Sternotherus odoratus
Species
Conservation status
Special concern
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Notes
Local populations are highly vulnerable, and some populations are declining due to increasing adult mortality.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Range
SK, MB, ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common Name
Common snapping turtle
Chelydra serpentina
Species
Conservation status
Special concern
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Notes
Local populations are highly vulnerable, and some populations are declining due to increasing adult mortality.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Range
SK, MB, ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Table summary:
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Four species endangered, one threatened, and three of special concern.
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All eight species are found in Ontario, seven in Quebec, four in Nova Scotia, three in New Brunswick, two in Saskatchewan, two in Manitoba, one in British Columbia, and one in Alberta. None are found on Prince Edward Island, in Newfoundland, or the territories.
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Historically, populations were more widespread, less disjunct, and had healthier population levels.
How many individuals are estimated to remain in the wild in Canada?
Wood turtle: Between 6,000 and 12,000 (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Blanding’s turtle: Between 25,000 and 45,000 in Ontario and Quebec, and 250 in Nova Scotia (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Spotted turtle: Between 2,000 and 3,000 (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Painted turtle: 10,000 (eastern), 10,000 (midland), 3,000 (western) (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Spiny softshell: 900 in Ontario, and less than 100 in Quebec (COSEWIC 2016)
Northern Map Turtle: 1,200 in Ontario, and 1,000 in Quebec (COSEWIC 2012)
Eastern Musk Turtle: 10,000 (Government of Canada, 2024)
Snapping turtle: Unknown, but thousands (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
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Total: Roughly 69,200 to 96,200
Threats, Impacts, and Causes
What are the primary threats facing Steller sea lions today?
Several natural and human-related factors threaten Steller sea lions.
Human-related threats include:
Illegal shooting or hunting (COSEWIC 2013)
Incidental capture and drowning in fishing gear such as gillnets and trawl nets (COSEWIC 2013)
Entanglement in marine debris (COSEWIC 2013)
Disturbance from boats, aircraft, or human activity near breeding sites (COSEWIC 2013)
Oil spills and pollution, which could cause large mortality events near rookeries (DFO 2020)
Environmental contaminants accumulating in marine ecosystems (COSEWIC 2013)
Natural threats include:
Changes in prey availability (COSEWIC 2013)
Predation by killer whales (COSEWIC 2013)
Disease outbreaks in large colonies (COSEWIC 2013)
Despite these threats, there are currently no immediate large-scale risks to the Steller sea lions population in British Columbia (DFO 2020). Out of these risks, it is estimated that if an oil spill or similar catastrophic event happened in British Columbia, it would be devastating for rookeries (COSEWIC 2013).
Conservation Efforts
What conservation research has been conducted?
Extensive monitoring and research of Steller sea lions has been conducted in Canada. Fisheries and Oceans Canada has carried out long-term population monitoring programs, including more than a dozen aerial surveys of breeding colonies and haulout sites since the 1970s (DFO 2020). These surveys estimate the number of pups, juveniles, and adults in order to track population trends over time (DFO 2020).
Are there conservation actions and laws in place to protect this species?
Laws: Several laws help protect Steller sea lions in Canada:
Regulations were implemented in 1970 as part of the Fisheries Act which protected this species for the first time in Canada (COSEWIC 2013)
Species at Risk Act (SARA) listing the species as Special Concern (COSEWIC 2013)
The Cape St. James rookery became part of the Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve in 1987 under the National Parks Act. This protected 3 breeding sites (COSEWIC 2013)
The British Columbia Ecological Reserves Act, helps to protect important breeding sites and multiple haulout sites (COSEWIC 2013)
The Oceans Act, which was implemented in 1996, protects certain marine mammal species and allows the creation of Marine Protected Areas to protect marine ecosystems (COSEWIC 2013)
NGOs:
The Vancouver Aquarium Marine Mammal Rescue Society rescues marine mammals in distress in British Columbia, and connects them with veterinary care. The public can report a marine mammal in distress online, by phone call, or can donate to support the work of the society. The society has experience with rescuing entangled Steller sea lions (Vancouver Aquarium Marine Mammal Rescue Society 2026).
The North Island Marine Mammal Stewardship Association is a collective of 30 organizations who share a similar vision for protecting marine wildlife and encouraging sustainable ecotourism in British Columbia (Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2018).
Community-led:
Local communities contribute to conservation through monitoring, habitat protection, and responsible wildlife viewing practices, which reduce disturbance at haulout and breeding sites (DFO 2020).
Members of the public can also report entangled or hurt Steller sea lions to the Vancouver Aquarium Marine Mammal Rescue Society for rescue and veterinary care (Vancouver Aquarium Marine Mammal Rescue Society 2026).
Members of the public interested in volunteering can sign up to participate in the Ocean Wise Great Canadian Shoreline Cleanup. This brings people together to remove debris from natural habitats, which also benefits Steller sea lion habitat (Ocean Wise 2026).
Indigenous-led:
Some protected areas important to Steller sea lions, such as Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve, are co-managed by the Government of Canada and the Haida Nation, supporting Indigenous involvement in habitat protection and conservation planning (COSEWIC 2013)
Have actions been effective in the recovery of Steller sea lions?
Conservation actions appear to have been effective in supporting population recovery. Since marine mammals were protected in Canada beginning in 1970, the Steller sea lion population in British Columbia has increased and has expanded to new breeding sites (COSEWIC 2013). More work would lead to further benefits.
Future and Potential Solutions
What would a successful recovery for Steller sea lions look like? What immediate actions can people take to support Steller sea lions conservation? How can sustainable practices help protect Steller sea lions? What role can education and awareness play in changing the public perception and treatment of Steller sea lions?
A successful recovery would involve:
Maintaining a stable or increasing population size
Continued growth in pup production and breeding colonies
Long-term protection of important rookeries and haulout habitats
Reduced human disturbance and environmental risks (COSEWIC 2013)
Immediate Actions People Can Take
People can support Steller sea lion conservation by:
Keeping a safe distance from sea lions at rookeries and haulout sites
Avoiding disturbance from boats or aircraft near colonies
Reducing marine pollution and debris
Supporting conservation policies and marine protected areas (COSEWIC 2013).
Role of Sustainable Practices
Sustainable fishing and marine management practices can reduce:
Accidental capture in fishing gear
Competition for prey species
Environmental damage to marine ecosystems (COSEWIC 2013).
Education and public awareness can help change negative perceptions of sea lions as competitors with fisheries and promote greater support for conservation. Increasing the knowledge about this species and its ecological role encourages responsible wildlife viewing and support for marine conservation policies (COSEWIC 2013).
