Grizzly bears
Background
What is the morphology and life history of Grizzly bears?
Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis) are large, muscular mammals with distinct shoulder humps and long claws. Males weigh anywhere between 190 kg and 322 kg, with females between 100 kg and 225 kg (COSEWIC, 2012). Their color varies from brown, black, to blonde, with the former being the most common (iNaturalist, n.d.).
They are found mainly in western Canada, across British Columbia, Alberta, Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and Nunavut (Nature Conservancy of Canada, n.d.).
Despite popular belief, Grizzly bears are omnivorous, with over 80% of its diet being plant-based. Grizzly bears eat grasses, berries, nuts, salmon and small mammals. They shape ecosystem dynamics by seed dispersal and carcass consumption and compete with wolves, cougars, and black bears (Canadian Geographic, n.d.).
This species is valued in Indigenous cultures for its spiritual significance, is used to promote ecotourism, and is often the focus of human-wildlife conflict management education.
What is the current conservation status of Grizzly bears?
The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) and the Species at Risk Act (SARA) list Grizzlies as “Special Concern” nationwide. Provincially, Alberta lists them as “Threatened,” British Columbia and the Northwest Territories designate the species as special concern (Parks Canada, n.d.).
How many individuals are estimated to remain in the wild in Canada?
There are approximately 20,000 individuals estimated to be living nationwide (Parks Canada, n.d.). The last broad assessment was in 2018 during COSEWIC evaluations (Northwest Territories Species at Risk Committee, 2017). Provincial estimates vary, with roughly 700 in Alberta, 16,000 in British Columbia, and a few thousand in the territories (Parks Canada, n.d.).
Species Background
Key biological and ecological information for freshwater turtle species in Canada.
Title | campaignKey | commonName | description |
|---|
Common name
Wood turtle
Species
Glyptemys insculpta
Description
Adults are between 16 cm and 25 cm long. Carapace is grayish brown to yellow. Each scute is pyramidal, and has concentric ridges mimicking cut wood. The plastron is yellow with black blotches. The skin is mostly brown with orange on the neck and legs.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Habitat needs
Most terrestrial Canadian turtle species. Clear meandering rivers with sandy or gravel bottoms, and upland areas such as adjacent forests, meadows, and fields.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Lifespan
Known to live more than 50 years, more research is required.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Spotted turtle
Species
Clemmys guttata
Description
Smooth and arched black carapace, with yellow-orange spots that can fade. Maximum adult size of 14.25 cm. The heads and limbs tend to be black with yellow or orange, and the tail is dark with yellow stripes. A distinctive feature is the orange dot found on the skin directly behind each eye.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Habitat needs
Preference for shallow, slow moving aquatic habitats, soft bottoms, and both aquatic and terrestrial basking areas. Habitat includes fens, bogs, marshes, and shallow streams.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Lifespan
Known to live over 30 years, maximum age for females believed to be 110 for females, and 65 for males.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Spiny softshell turtle
Species
Apalone spinifera
Description
Thick, leather-like carapace without scales. Females get much larger than males at 54 cm, whereas males reach 24 cm. The shell is olive to tan in colour, fairly flat, and round. Females have a mottled or blotched pattern, whereas males resemble juveniles with their pattern of lines and spots.
(COSEWIC 2016)
Habitat needs
Aquatic habitats including rivers, lakes, and marshy creeks. Preference for aquatic habitats with a soft bottom, and limited aquatic vegetation. Overwintering sites can be found in well oxygenated areas.
(COSEWIC 2016)
Lifespan
Thought to be more than 50 years, though research is limited.
(COSEWIC 2016)
Common name
Blanding’s turtle
Species
Emydoidea blandingii
Description
Medium sized turtle with a highly domed and smooth carapace. The carapace is dark with white or yellow speckling which can be faint. A distinguishing feature is the bright yellow underside of the neck, and the turtle’s “smiling” appearance.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Habitat needs
Preference for shallow vegetated wetlands with soft organic bottoms and basking areas. Often found in clean aquatic habitats with slow moving water.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Lifespan
Known to live past 83 years, sexual maturity can take up to 25 years.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Northern map turtle
Species
Graptemys geographica
Description
Highly aquatic turtle, olive to brown carapace with yellow lines that fade with age. The head and limbs have olive green skin with greenish-yellow stripes. Female size is around 25 cm, whereas males reach around 14 cm.
(COSEWIC 2012)
Habitat needs
Almost exclusively aquatic. Uses both lakes and rivers. Preference for muddy bottoms, and abundant aquatic vegetation. Basking sites such as rocks and dead logs in the water are required.
(COSEWIC 2012)
Lifespan
Largely unknown. Sexual maturity does not happen until at least 10 years of age.
(COSEWIC 2012)
Common name
Painted turtle
Species
Chrysemys picta
Description
A colourful species, the plastron is red or orange with dark and light markings. The head is dark olive green with yellow markings. The carapace is low-domed, smooth, and dark green or black.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Habitat needs
Shallow, slow-moving freshwater bodies. Prefer soft bottoms, and plenty of basking areas. Typically hibernate in mud. They use soil as nesting areas adjacent to water bodies.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Lifespan
Exceeds 60 years, though maximum age is unknown.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Common name
Eastern musk turtle
Species
Sternotherus odoratus
Description
Small size, arched grey-brown-black carapace, yellow-brown plastron. The margins of the plastron have 4 musk glands, hence the common name. Two white stripes on each side of the head, all other skin is grey. Cannot fully retract into shell and has exposed skin.
(Government of Canada, 2024)
Habitat needs
Shallow wetlands, slow moving streams, stagnant water, connected to larger water bodies. Highly aquatic species. Found in soft-bottom areas, never rocky. Require vegetation in habitat.
(Government of Canada, 2024)
Lifespan
Unknown. A known wild turtle dated to 28 years old. A known captive turtle dated to over 54 years old. Maturity happens between 5-9 years of age.
(Government of Canada, 2024)
Common name
Common snapping turtle
Species
Chelydra serpentina
Description
It is one of the largest Canadian freshwater turtles. This species has exposed limbs, meaning it cannot retract within its shell, and the limbs are very exposed on the underside of the shell. The head is relatively large. Males reach 49.4 cm and females reach 36.6 cm.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Habitat needs
Preference for aquatic areas with slow moving water, soft bottom, and dense aquatic vegetation. They use adjacent terrestrial areas.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Lifespan
Estimated to be 40 years, with anecdotal data saying more than 50 years. Ultimately more research needs to be done.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Table summary and trends:
-
All require freshwater aquatic areas, most species often utilize adjacent land. General preference for slow-moving water bodies with soft bottoms, basking areas, and aquatic vegetation.
-
Research on lifespan is extremely limited, many species still have an unknown maximum age.
What is the current conservation status of freshwater turtles?
All eight native species have populations which are at risk.
Two native species have been extirpated in Canada: the Western Pond Turtle (Actinemys marmorata) historically found in southern British Columbia, and the Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina) (COSEWIC 2023).
Common name
Wood turtle
Conservation status
Threatened
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Glyptemys insculpta
Range
ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Notes
Nova Scotia has the highest population across the provinces.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Spotted turtle
Conservation status
Endangered
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Clemmys guttata
Range
ON
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Notes
Only two confirmed historical records of this species in Quebec.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Spiny softshell turtle
Conservation status
Endangered
(COSEWIC 2016)
Common name
Apalone spinifera
Range
ON, QC
(COSEWIC 2016)
Notes
The species was previously more widespread around the Great Lakes. The Ontario subpopulation is more abundant.
(COSEWIC 2016)
Common name
Blanding’s turtle
Conservation status
Endangered
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Emydoidea blandingii
Range
ON, QC, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Notes
Only found within a small area in Nova Scotia, and this population is considered to be more endangered than other Canadian populations.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Northern map turtle
Conservation status
Special Concern
(COSEWIC 2012)
Common name
Graptemys geographica
Range
ON, QC
(COSEWIC 2012)
Notes
Found from the Great Lakes east to Montreal.
(COSEWIC 2012)
Common name
Painted turtle
Conservation status
Endangered (western subspecies), Special concern (midland, and eastern subspecies)
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Common name
Chrysemys picta
Range
BC, AB, SK, MB, ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Notes
Western populations (BC to MB) are in poorer condition than other Canadian populations.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Common name
Eastern musk turtle
Conservation status
Special concern
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Sternotherus odoratus
Range
SK, MB, ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Notes
Local populations are highly vulnerable, and some populations are declining due to increasing adult mortality.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Common snapping turtle
Conservation status
Special concern
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Chelydra serpentina
Range
SK, MB, ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Notes
Local populations are highly vulnerable, and some populations are declining due to increasing adult mortality.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Table summary:
-
Four species endangered, one threatened, and three of special concern.
-
All eight species are found in Ontario, seven in Quebec, four in Nova Scotia, three in New Brunswick, two in Saskatchewan, two in Manitoba, one in British Columbia, and one in Alberta. None are found on Prince Edward Island, in Newfoundland, or the territories.
-
Historically, populations were more widespread, less disjunct, and had healthier population levels.
How many individuals are estimated to remain in the wild in Canada?
Wood turtle: Between 6,000 and 12,000 (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Blanding’s turtle: Between 25,000 and 45,000 in Ontario and Quebec, and 250 in Nova Scotia (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Spotted turtle: Between 2,000 and 3,000 (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Painted turtle: 10,000 (eastern), 10,000 (midland), 3,000 (western) (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Spiny softshell: 900 in Ontario, and less than 100 in Quebec (COSEWIC 2016)
Northern Map Turtle: 1,200 in Ontario, and 1,000 in Quebec (COSEWIC 2012)
Eastern Musk Turtle: 10,000 (Government of Canada, 2024)
Snapping turtle: Unknown, but thousands (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
-
Total: Roughly 69,200 to 96,200
Threats, Impacts, and Causes
How has the distribution and population of this species changed over the last two centuries?
Since the 1800s the global population of Grizzly bears have declined by over 50%, including significant declines across much of North America (Mattson & Merrill, 2002). The species once occurred throughout much of the southwestern United States, along with parts of Mexico. Their southernmost range now occurs in fragmented populations close to the Canada - U.S. border. Over the past 20 years, it is estimated that the Grizzly bear population has been stable, with potential small population losses in southern parts of their range, alongside potential range expansions in the north (COSEWIC, 2012).
What are the historic causes of the decline of this species/category?
Historically, Grizzly bear populations have declined due to direct persecution by humans and habitat loss (McLellan et al., 2016). High human and road densities are associated with Grizzly bear mortality, and population decline.
What are the primary threats facing this species today?
Throughout North America, habitat loss and human-wildlife conflict continue to pose the greatest threat to Grizzly bears (COSEWIC, 2012).
How are the primary threats impacting the viability of the population?
As long-lived, large mammals, Grizzly bears require large expanses of high quality habitat to meet their basic energetic needs (COSEWIC, 2012; Coogan et al. 2019). If their habitat is degraded they may be unable to survive. Because this species reproduces slowly, even low rates of human-caused mortality (e.g., via vehicle collisions) can result in significant population declines (Lamb et al., 2023).
Conservation Efforts
What conservation research has been conducted?
Long-term studies via Parks Canada have employed radio collars to study habitat use and road impacts. Wildsight monitoring in Elk Valley has studied mortality due to roads and conflicts. Provincial academic and agency research has examined reproduction rates and population trends (Wildsight, n.d.).
Are there conservation actions & laws in place to protect this species?
NGOs: Wildsight, EcoJustice, Pacific Wild, and the David Suzuki Foundation advocate for habitat corridors, reduced road density, and policy reform.
Community-led: Alberta and British Columbia implement “BearSmart” programs, which include electric fencing and bear‑aware education. Parks Canada uses bear‑proof bins and has extensive wildlife fencing and crossing structures in numerous National parks.
Indigenous-led: A Yukon conservation plan was co-developed with First Nations. The Ktunaxa-led protection of Jumbo Valley within the Qat'muk Indigenous Protected Area resulted in the establishment of the Indigenous Protected and Conserved Area (IPCA) (Wyss Campaign for Nature, 2020).
Have actions been effective in the recovery of Grizzly bears?
An Alberta hunting ban in 2006 and British Columbian hunting ban in 2017 have helped stabilize some sub-populations (Government of British Columbia, 2017). However, human-caused mortality, including roads and human conflict, still continue to destabilize this species. Alberta’s 2006 hunting ban was softened just last year without input from the public (Exposed Wildlife Conservancy, 2024).
Globally, Grizzly re-introductions, like that at Yellowstone National Park, (U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, 2017) show that focused interventions with habitat protection, species reintroduction, and traffic mitigation can re-establish viable populations. Unfortunately, efforts such as British Columbia’s 1995 strategy have under-performed compared to U.S. recovery successes (Gailus, 2014).
Future and Potential Solutions
What would a successful recovery for this species look like?
In Canada, recovery of threatened Grizzly bear subpopulations would include habitat protection and restoration, while also limiting the incidence of human-caused mortality (COSEWIC, 2012). For example, threatened subpopulations of Grizzly bears that live in areas along the continental divide have benefited from numerous conservation measures (Lamb et al., 2018) . These include wildlife fencing, crossing structures, and programs to secure attractants like garbage. Collectively, these measures aim to reduce bear-human conflict and human-caused bear mortality.
What immediate actions can people take to support this species' conservation?
If living or recreating in Grizzly bear territory, people should ensure they secure attractants (e.g., garbage), exercise bear safety awareness, and minimize time spent in sensitive habitat. All these personal actions can all help support the conservation and stewardship of this iconic species.
How can sustainable practices help protect this species?
Grizzly bears require large tracts of uninterrupted habitat to persist. For this reason, most Canadians likely won’t encounter a Grizzly bear in their day-to-day life. If conducted appropriately, however, ecotourism can offer Canadians the opportunity to view Grizzly bears safely, while still minimizing the chance of human-wildlife conflict (Field et al., 2025).
What role can education and awareness play in changing the public perception and treatment of this species?
Education and awareness campaigns have already played a large role in shaping the public’s perception of Grizzly bears and associated risk. Once persecuted and extensively killed for human and livestock safety, Grizzly bear coexistence strategies have been adopted by many communities in western North America (Coogan et al., 2019; Lamb et al., 2018).