Freshwater Turtles
Background
What is the morphology and life history of freshwater turtles?
Freshwater turtles belong to the suborder Cryptodira along with tortoises and sea turtles. All Canadian freshwater turtles require both land and freshwater to complete their lifecycles. (Safi, Usman Ali Hashmi, & Peter Smith, 2020).
Canada is home to four families of freshwater turtles: Chelydridae (snapping turtles), Trionychidae (softshell turtles), Kinosternidae (mud and musk turtles), and Emydidae (pond turtles). Eight species of freshwater turtle are native to Canada. There are species in each province except for Newfoundland and Labrador, with none being found in the three territories. (Safi, Usman Ali Hashmi, & Peter Smith, 2020).
Species Background
Key biological and ecological information for freshwater turtle species in Canada.
Title | campaignKey | commonName | description |
|---|---|---|---|
freshwater-turtles | Wood turtle | Adults are between 16 cm and 25 cm long. Carapace is grayish brown to yellow. Each scute is pyramidal, and has concentric ridges mimicking cut wood. The plastron is yellow with black blotches. The skin is mostly brown with orange on the neck and legs.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020) | |
freshwater-turtles | Spotted turtle | Smooth and arched black carapace, with yellow-orange spots that can fade. Maximum adult size of 14.25 cm. The heads and limbs tend to be black with yellow or orange, and the tail is dark with yellow stripes. A distinctive feature is the orange dot found on the skin directly behind each eye.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018) | |
freshwater-turtles | Spiny softshell turtle | Thick, leather-like carapace without scales. Females get much larger than males at 54 cm, whereas males reach 24 cm. The shell is olive to tan in colour, fairly flat, and round. Females have a mottled or blotched pattern, whereas males resemble juveniles with their pattern of lines and spots.
(COSEWIC 2016) | |
freshwater-turtles | Blanding’s turtle | Medium sized turtle with a highly domed and smooth carapace. The carapace is dark with white or yellow speckling which can be faint. A distinguishing feature is the bright yellow underside of the neck, and the turtle’s “smiling” appearance.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018) | |
freshwater-turtles | Northern map turtle | Highly aquatic turtle, olive to brown carapace with yellow lines that fade with age. The head and limbs have olive green skin with greenish-yellow stripes. Female size is around 25 cm, whereas males reach around 14 cm.
(COSEWIC 2012) | |
freshwater-turtles | Painted turtle | A colourful species, the plastron is red or orange with dark and light markings. The head is dark olive green with yellow markings. The carapace is low-domed, smooth, and dark green or black.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021) | |
freshwater-turtles | Eastern musk turtle | Small size, arched grey-brown-black carapace, yellow-brown plastron. The margins of the plastron have 4 musk glands, hence the common name. Two white stripes on each side of the head, all other skin is grey. Cannot fully retract into shell and has exposed skin.
(Government of Canada, 2024) | |
freshwater-turtles | Common snapping turtle | It is one of the largest Canadian freshwater turtles. This species has exposed limbs, meaning it cannot retract within its shell, and the limbs are very exposed on the underside of the shell. The head is relatively large. Males reach 49.4 cm and females reach 36.6 cm.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
|
Common name
Wood turtle
Species
Glyptemys insculpta
Description
Adults are between 16 cm and 25 cm long. Carapace is grayish brown to yellow. Each scute is pyramidal, and has concentric ridges mimicking cut wood. The plastron is yellow with black blotches. The skin is mostly brown with orange on the neck and legs.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Habitat needs
Most terrestrial Canadian turtle species. Clear meandering rivers with sandy or gravel bottoms, and upland areas such as adjacent forests, meadows, and fields.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Lifespan
Known to live more than 50 years, more research is required.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Spotted turtle
Species
Clemmys guttata
Description
Smooth and arched black carapace, with yellow-orange spots that can fade. Maximum adult size of 14.25 cm. The heads and limbs tend to be black with yellow or orange, and the tail is dark with yellow stripes. A distinctive feature is the orange dot found on the skin directly behind each eye.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Habitat needs
Preference for shallow, slow moving aquatic habitats, soft bottoms, and both aquatic and terrestrial basking areas. Habitat includes fens, bogs, marshes, and shallow streams.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Lifespan
Known to live over 30 years, maximum age for females believed to be 110 for females, and 65 for males.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Spiny softshell turtle
Species
Apalone spinifera
Description
Thick, leather-like carapace without scales. Females get much larger than males at 54 cm, whereas males reach 24 cm. The shell is olive to tan in colour, fairly flat, and round. Females have a mottled or blotched pattern, whereas males resemble juveniles with their pattern of lines and spots.
(COSEWIC 2016)
Habitat needs
Aquatic habitats including rivers, lakes, and marshy creeks. Preference for aquatic habitats with a soft bottom, and limited aquatic vegetation. Overwintering sites can be found in well oxygenated areas.
(COSEWIC 2016)
Lifespan
Thought to be more than 50 years, though research is limited.
(COSEWIC 2016)
Common name
Blanding’s turtle
Species
Emydoidea blandingii
Description
Medium sized turtle with a highly domed and smooth carapace. The carapace is dark with white or yellow speckling which can be faint. A distinguishing feature is the bright yellow underside of the neck, and the turtle’s “smiling” appearance.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Habitat needs
Preference for shallow vegetated wetlands with soft organic bottoms and basking areas. Often found in clean aquatic habitats with slow moving water.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Lifespan
Known to live past 83 years, sexual maturity can take up to 25 years.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Northern map turtle
Species
Graptemys geographica
Description
Highly aquatic turtle, olive to brown carapace with yellow lines that fade with age. The head and limbs have olive green skin with greenish-yellow stripes. Female size is around 25 cm, whereas males reach around 14 cm.
(COSEWIC 2012)
Habitat needs
Almost exclusively aquatic. Uses both lakes and rivers. Preference for muddy bottoms, and abundant aquatic vegetation. Basking sites such as rocks and dead logs in the water are required.
(COSEWIC 2012)
Lifespan
Largely unknown. Sexual maturity does not happen until at least 10 years of age.
(COSEWIC 2012)
Common name
Painted turtle
Species
Chrysemys picta
Description
A colourful species, the plastron is red or orange with dark and light markings. The head is dark olive green with yellow markings. The carapace is low-domed, smooth, and dark green or black.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Habitat needs
Shallow, slow-moving freshwater bodies. Prefer soft bottoms, and plenty of basking areas. Typically hibernate in mud. They use soil as nesting areas adjacent to water bodies.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Lifespan
Exceeds 60 years, though maximum age is unknown.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Common name
Eastern musk turtle
Species
Sternotherus odoratus
Description
Small size, arched grey-brown-black carapace, yellow-brown plastron. The margins of the plastron have 4 musk glands, hence the common name. Two white stripes on each side of the head, all other skin is grey. Cannot fully retract into shell and has exposed skin.
(Government of Canada, 2024)
Habitat needs
Shallow wetlands, slow moving streams, stagnant water, connected to larger water bodies. Highly aquatic species. Found in soft-bottom areas, never rocky. Require vegetation in habitat.
(Government of Canada, 2024)
Lifespan
Unknown. A known wild turtle dated to 28 years old. A known captive turtle dated to over 54 years old. Maturity happens between 5-9 years of age.
(Government of Canada, 2024)
Common name
Common snapping turtle
Species
Chelydra serpentina
Description
It is one of the largest Canadian freshwater turtles. This species has exposed limbs, meaning it cannot retract within its shell, and the limbs are very exposed on the underside of the shell. The head is relatively large. Males reach 49.4 cm and females reach 36.6 cm.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Habitat needs
Preference for aquatic areas with slow moving water, soft bottom, and dense aquatic vegetation. They use adjacent terrestrial areas.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Lifespan
Estimated to be 40 years, with anecdotal data saying more than 50 years. Ultimately more research needs to be done.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Table summary and trends:
-
All require freshwater aquatic areas, most species often utilize adjacent land. General preference for slow-moving water bodies with soft bottoms, basking areas, and aquatic vegetation.
-
Research on lifespan is extremely limited, many species still have an unknown maximum age.
What is the current conservation status of freshwater turtles?
All eight native species have populations which are at risk.
Two native species have been extirpated in Canada: the Western Pond Turtle (Actinemys marmorata) historically found in southern British Columbia, and the Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina) (COSEWIC 2023).
Common name
Wood turtle
Conservation status
Threatened
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Glyptemys insculpta
Range
ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Notes
Nova Scotia has the highest population across the provinces.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Spotted turtle
Conservation status
Endangered
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Clemmys guttata
Range
ON
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Notes
Only two confirmed historical records of this species in Quebec.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Spiny softshell turtle
Conservation status
Endangered
(COSEWIC 2016)
Common name
Apalone spinifera
Range
ON, QC
(COSEWIC 2016)
Notes
The species was previously more widespread around the Great Lakes. The Ontario subpopulation is more abundant.
(COSEWIC 2016)
Common name
Blanding’s turtle
Conservation status
Endangered
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Emydoidea blandingii
Range
ON, QC, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Notes
Only found within a small area in Nova Scotia, and this population is considered to be more endangered than other Canadian populations.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Northern map turtle
Conservation status
Special Concern
(COSEWIC 2012)
Common name
Graptemys geographica
Range
ON, QC
(COSEWIC 2012)
Notes
Found from the Great Lakes east to Montreal.
(COSEWIC 2012)
Common name
Painted turtle
Conservation status
Endangered (western subspecies), Special concern (midland, and eastern subspecies)
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Common name
Chrysemys picta
Range
BC, AB, SK, MB, ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Notes
Western populations (BC to MB) are in poorer condition than other Canadian populations.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Common name
Eastern musk turtle
Conservation status
Special concern
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Sternotherus odoratus
Range
SK, MB, ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Notes
Local populations are highly vulnerable, and some populations are declining due to increasing adult mortality.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Common snapping turtle
Conservation status
Special concern
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Chelydra serpentina
Range
SK, MB, ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Notes
Local populations are highly vulnerable, and some populations are declining due to increasing adult mortality.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Table summary:
-
Four species endangered, one threatened, and three of special concern.
-
All eight species are found in Ontario, seven in Quebec, four in Nova Scotia, three in New Brunswick, two in Saskatchewan, two in Manitoba, one in British Columbia, and one in Alberta. None are found on Prince Edward Island, in Newfoundland, or the territories.
-
Historically, populations were more widespread, less disjunct, and had healthier population levels.
How many individuals are estimated to remain in the wild in Canada?
Wood turtle: Between 6,000 and 12,000 (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Blanding’s turtle: Between 25,000 and 45,000 in Ontario and Quebec, and 250 in Nova Scotia (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Spotted turtle: Between 2,000 and 3,000 (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Painted turtle: 10,000 (eastern), 10,000 (midland), 3,000 (western) (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Spiny softshell: 900 in Ontario, and less than 100 in Quebec (COSEWIC 2016)
Northern Map Turtle: 1,200 in Ontario, and 1,000 in Quebec (COSEWIC 2012)
Eastern Musk Turtle: 10,000 (Government of Canada, 2024)
Snapping turtle: Unknown, but thousands (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
-
Total: Roughly 69,200 to 96,200
Threats, Impacts, and Causes
What are the primary threats facing freshwater turtles today?
Generally, native freshwater turtle populations have declined across Canada. For example, one species of freshwater turtle, the Blanding’s turtle, has experienced an approximate 60% decline in the past 120 years (ECCC, 2018). Freshwater turtle species are one of the most endangered groups of animals in Canada (Desforges et al., 2022).
For many turtle species, a lack of robust monitoring efforts have precluded a thorough population trend assessment, though the majority of Canadian freshwater turtle populations are thought to be declining, and all eight species have populations which are federally listed as at-risk.
Numerous threats have contributed to declines across Canada. For most species, habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation are important factors contributing to their decline. For semi-aquatic turtles which spend time on land, such as the Blanding’s, wood, painted, spotted, and snapping turtles, mortality from vehicle collisions poses a dominant threat to the conservation and viability of populations (e.g., ECCC, 2018, 2020a, 2020b; Gibbs and Shriver, 2002).
In areas of southern Ontario, where most of these species reside, there is no remaining habitat without a road within 1.5 km (Gunson et al., 2012).
For more strictly aquatic turtles like the northern map, musk, and spiny softshell turtles, collisions with boaters and fishing bycatch may also be a significant risk (COSEWIC, 2012, 2016; ECCC, 2024).
More generally, invasive aquatic plant species, nest predation, pollution, and poaching for the pet trade, food, and medicine are other important risks that threaten freshwater turtles in Canada. Even relatively modest rates of human-caused mortality can cause population declines for freshwater turtles, which reach sexual maturity late, reproduce relatively slowly, and have generally long lifespans (Gunson et al., 2012).
Conservation Efforts
What conservation research has been conducted?
Primarily population monitoring, habitat use and restoration, and hatchling success with some interventions have all had positive outcomes. A long-term mark-recapture study of freshwater turtles in an artificially created urban wetland in Toronto documented movement and colonization patterns, nesting behaviour, species richness, and fidelity to overwintering sites for both common snapping and Blanding’s turtles (Dupuis-Desormeaux et al., 2018).
Are there conservation actions and laws in place to protect this species?
Laws:
The federal Species at Risk Act provides legal protection for listed freshwater turtles by requiring recovery strategies, management plans, and the identification and protection of critical habitat. (Government of Canada, 2002). Provincial legislation, for example Ontario’s Endangered Species Act, also prohibits harm to listed turtle species and their habitat, and supports stewardship and conservation funding programs. (Government of Ontario, 2007).
NGOs:
The Ontario Turtle Conservation Centre rehabilitates injured freshwater turtles such as Blanding’s turtles, and releases them back into the wild, reducing mortality caused by vehicle collisions, fishing gear, and other human activities. (Ontario Turtle Conservation Centre, 2023)
The Canadian Wildlife Federation works with communities and landowners to protect turtle habitat, reduce road mortality, and increase public awareness of freshwater turtle conservation needs. They also encourage members of the public to report turtle sightings. (Canadian Wildlife Federation, 2024)
Community-led:
The Government of Ontario encourages members of the public who observe a Blanding’s turtle to report it to the Natural Heritage Information Centre. (Government of Ontario, 2024)
In northwest Nova Scotia, The Annapolis River Wood Turtle Monitoring & Stewardship initiative engages and educates local volunteers to survey nesting turtles, protect nests, release hatchlings, and raise awareness among residents around the Annapolis watershed about reducing risks to turtles during nesting season. (Clean Annapolis River Project, 2025)
Indigenous-led:
The North shore Mi’kmaq Tribal Council: Anqotum Resource Management received $106,843 to go towards wood turtle protection in New Brunswick. The two-year project works with Elders and Knowledge Keepers to update data about distribution, habitat, and threats. (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2025)
Whitefish River First Nation received federal funding to lead freshwater turtle nest protection, monitoring, and community education initiatives that combine Indigenous Knowledge with Western scientific approaches. (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2025)
Have actions been effective in the recovery of freshwater turtles?
Yes, but freshwater turtles still need more help. While a certain species may be doing well, different subpopulations could be declining while others improve. This causes loss of genetic diversity and population range. Nest protection, rehabilitation programs, and habitat management have increased turtle hatchling survival and reduced the adult mortality in localized populations, contributing to improved conservation outcomes despite ongoing threats. (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018; Canadian Wildlife Federation, 2024) Ultimately, more research and conservation efforts are needed to maintain and improve turtle populations in Canada. (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018).
Future and Potential Solutions
What would a successful recovery for freshwater turtles look like? What immediate actions can people take to support freshwater turtles's conservation? How can sustainable practices help protect freshwater turtles? What role can education and awareness play in changing the public perception and treatment of freshwater turtles?
The first priority for freshwater turtles in Canada must be to slow and eventually stop population declines. Turtle fencing and associated eco-passage and culverts have shown success in reducing road mortality (ECCC, 2018) while promoting some connectivity across the roadway (Gunson, 2018).
Community science initiatives such as iNaturalist are currently used extensively in the Ottawa region to help scientists identify turtle nests and road-kill hotspots for further conservation action. General education and awareness can encourage motorists and boaters to drive carefully and increase participation in community science initiatives, which improve conservation outcomes.
As a generally understudied and less charismatic species, public awareness campaigns can also help highlight the freshwater biodiversity crisis (Desforges et al., 2022), and garner greater public support and funding for conservation programs.
These measures are especially important in places like southern Ontario where high road densities occur across the majority of freshwater turtle habitat (ECCC, 2018). Elsewhere in the country where roads are less common, the protection of existing habitat is paramount. Ongoing conservation programs in Ontario have established breeding programs, public education programs, and designed strategies to mitigate nest predation (ECCC, 2018).
