Caribou
Background
What is the morphology and life history of Canada’s caribou?
Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) have lived in Canada since the last Ice Age, adapting to a wide range of environments and holding important cultural significance for Indigenous Peoples.
They contribute to ecosystems by serving as a key food source for predators like wolves and bears, helping to sustain healthy food webs. Their grazing and movement patterns shape vegetation by keeping shrubs and lichens in balance, while also dispersing seeds and nutrients across the landscape.
Both males and females uniquely grow their antlers annually. Their hollow hair and snowshoe-like hooves help them survive harsh winters and travel efficiently on snow. They undertake some of the longest land migrations of any terrestrial mammal, with journeys exceeding 1,300 km. Caribou survival depends on predation, climate, habitat quality, and the availability of lichen, their primary winter food.
Although caribou can live 10 to 15 years in the wild, many populations are now threatened by habitat loss, fragmentation, and climate change, making their conservation vital for ecosystem balance.
What is the current conservation status of caribou?
Caribou are classified in several ways in Canada. For ease of status classification, we will be defining populations using “Designatable Units” (DU’s). DU’s are recognized under the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) and under the Species at Risk Act (SARA). Indigenous peoples know caribou by many different names and classify them in their own ways.
Depending on the DU, populations are listed as endangered, threatened, or special concern.
How many individuals are estimated to remain in the wild in Canada?
Some DUs now have more recent data (particularly in B.C and Québec) that paint an up-to-date picture of small, intensively monitored herds. For example, B.C.’s Itcha-Ilgachuz herd numbered roughly 551 members in 2024. In Québec, the Gaspésie population is extremely low. The 2024 inventory counted only 11 wild individuals. When counted with captive animals, the total was roughly 30.
Species Background
Key biological and ecological information for freshwater turtle species in Canada.
Title | campaignKey | commonName | description |
|---|
Common name
Wood turtle
Species
Glyptemys insculpta
Description
Adults are between 16 cm and 25 cm long. Carapace is grayish brown to yellow. Each scute is pyramidal, and has concentric ridges mimicking cut wood. The plastron is yellow with black blotches. The skin is mostly brown with orange on the neck and legs.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Habitat needs
Most terrestrial Canadian turtle species. Clear meandering rivers with sandy or gravel bottoms, and upland areas such as adjacent forests, meadows, and fields.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Lifespan
Known to live more than 50 years, more research is required.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Spotted turtle
Species
Clemmys guttata
Description
Smooth and arched black carapace, with yellow-orange spots that can fade. Maximum adult size of 14.25 cm. The heads and limbs tend to be black with yellow or orange, and the tail is dark with yellow stripes. A distinctive feature is the orange dot found on the skin directly behind each eye.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Habitat needs
Preference for shallow, slow moving aquatic habitats, soft bottoms, and both aquatic and terrestrial basking areas. Habitat includes fens, bogs, marshes, and shallow streams.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Lifespan
Known to live over 30 years, maximum age for females believed to be 110 for females, and 65 for males.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Spiny softshell turtle
Species
Apalone spinifera
Description
Thick, leather-like carapace without scales. Females get much larger than males at 54 cm, whereas males reach 24 cm. The shell is olive to tan in colour, fairly flat, and round. Females have a mottled or blotched pattern, whereas males resemble juveniles with their pattern of lines and spots.
(COSEWIC 2016)
Habitat needs
Aquatic habitats including rivers, lakes, and marshy creeks. Preference for aquatic habitats with a soft bottom, and limited aquatic vegetation. Overwintering sites can be found in well oxygenated areas.
(COSEWIC 2016)
Lifespan
Thought to be more than 50 years, though research is limited.
(COSEWIC 2016)
Common name
Blanding’s turtle
Species
Emydoidea blandingii
Description
Medium sized turtle with a highly domed and smooth carapace. The carapace is dark with white or yellow speckling which can be faint. A distinguishing feature is the bright yellow underside of the neck, and the turtle’s “smiling” appearance.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Habitat needs
Preference for shallow vegetated wetlands with soft organic bottoms and basking areas. Often found in clean aquatic habitats with slow moving water.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Lifespan
Known to live past 83 years, sexual maturity can take up to 25 years.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Northern map turtle
Species
Graptemys geographica
Description
Highly aquatic turtle, olive to brown carapace with yellow lines that fade with age. The head and limbs have olive green skin with greenish-yellow stripes. Female size is around 25 cm, whereas males reach around 14 cm.
(COSEWIC 2012)
Habitat needs
Almost exclusively aquatic. Uses both lakes and rivers. Preference for muddy bottoms, and abundant aquatic vegetation. Basking sites such as rocks and dead logs in the water are required.
(COSEWIC 2012)
Lifespan
Largely unknown. Sexual maturity does not happen until at least 10 years of age.
(COSEWIC 2012)
Common name
Painted turtle
Species
Chrysemys picta
Description
A colourful species, the plastron is red or orange with dark and light markings. The head is dark olive green with yellow markings. The carapace is low-domed, smooth, and dark green or black.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Habitat needs
Shallow, slow-moving freshwater bodies. Prefer soft bottoms, and plenty of basking areas. Typically hibernate in mud. They use soil as nesting areas adjacent to water bodies.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Lifespan
Exceeds 60 years, though maximum age is unknown.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Common name
Eastern musk turtle
Species
Sternotherus odoratus
Description
Small size, arched grey-brown-black carapace, yellow-brown plastron. The margins of the plastron have 4 musk glands, hence the common name. Two white stripes on each side of the head, all other skin is grey. Cannot fully retract into shell and has exposed skin.
(Government of Canada, 2024)
Habitat needs
Shallow wetlands, slow moving streams, stagnant water, connected to larger water bodies. Highly aquatic species. Found in soft-bottom areas, never rocky. Require vegetation in habitat.
(Government of Canada, 2024)
Lifespan
Unknown. A known wild turtle dated to 28 years old. A known captive turtle dated to over 54 years old. Maturity happens between 5-9 years of age.
(Government of Canada, 2024)
Common name
Common snapping turtle
Species
Chelydra serpentina
Description
It is one of the largest Canadian freshwater turtles. This species has exposed limbs, meaning it cannot retract within its shell, and the limbs are very exposed on the underside of the shell. The head is relatively large. Males reach 49.4 cm and females reach 36.6 cm.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Habitat needs
Preference for aquatic areas with slow moving water, soft bottom, and dense aquatic vegetation. They use adjacent terrestrial areas.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Lifespan
Estimated to be 40 years, with anecdotal data saying more than 50 years. Ultimately more research needs to be done.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Table summary and trends:
-
All require freshwater aquatic areas, most species often utilize adjacent land. General preference for slow-moving water bodies with soft bottoms, basking areas, and aquatic vegetation.
-
Research on lifespan is extremely limited, many species still have an unknown maximum age.
What is the current conservation status of freshwater turtles?
All eight native species have populations which are at risk.
Two native species have been extirpated in Canada: the Western Pond Turtle (Actinemys marmorata) historically found in southern British Columbia, and the Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina) (COSEWIC 2023).
Common name
Wood turtle
Conservation status
Threatened
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Glyptemys insculpta
Range
ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Notes
Nova Scotia has the highest population across the provinces.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Spotted turtle
Conservation status
Endangered
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Clemmys guttata
Range
ON
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Notes
Only two confirmed historical records of this species in Quebec.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Spiny softshell turtle
Conservation status
Endangered
(COSEWIC 2016)
Common name
Apalone spinifera
Range
ON, QC
(COSEWIC 2016)
Notes
The species was previously more widespread around the Great Lakes. The Ontario subpopulation is more abundant.
(COSEWIC 2016)
Common name
Blanding’s turtle
Conservation status
Endangered
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Emydoidea blandingii
Range
ON, QC, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Notes
Only found within a small area in Nova Scotia, and this population is considered to be more endangered than other Canadian populations.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Common name
Northern map turtle
Conservation status
Special Concern
(COSEWIC 2012)
Common name
Graptemys geographica
Range
ON, QC
(COSEWIC 2012)
Notes
Found from the Great Lakes east to Montreal.
(COSEWIC 2012)
Common name
Painted turtle
Conservation status
Endangered (western subspecies), Special concern (midland, and eastern subspecies)
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Common name
Chrysemys picta
Range
BC, AB, SK, MB, ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Notes
Western populations (BC to MB) are in poorer condition than other Canadian populations.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Common name
Eastern musk turtle
Conservation status
Special concern
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Sternotherus odoratus
Range
SK, MB, ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Notes
Local populations are highly vulnerable, and some populations are declining due to increasing adult mortality.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Common snapping turtle
Conservation status
Special concern
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Common name
Chelydra serpentina
Range
SK, MB, ON, QC, NB, NS
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Notes
Local populations are highly vulnerable, and some populations are declining due to increasing adult mortality.
(Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Table summary:
-
Four species endangered, one threatened, and three of special concern.
-
All eight species are found in Ontario, seven in Quebec, four in Nova Scotia, three in New Brunswick, two in Saskatchewan, two in Manitoba, one in British Columbia, and one in Alberta. None are found on Prince Edward Island, in Newfoundland, or the territories.
-
Historically, populations were more widespread, less disjunct, and had healthier population levels.
How many individuals are estimated to remain in the wild in Canada?
Wood turtle: Between 6,000 and 12,000 (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
Blanding’s turtle: Between 25,000 and 45,000 in Ontario and Quebec, and 250 in Nova Scotia (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Spotted turtle: Between 2,000 and 3,000 (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2018)
Painted turtle: 10,000 (eastern), 10,000 (midland), 3,000 (western) (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2021)
Spiny softshell: 900 in Ontario, and less than 100 in Quebec (COSEWIC 2016)
Northern Map Turtle: 1,200 in Ontario, and 1,000 in Quebec (COSEWIC 2012)
Eastern Musk Turtle: 10,000 (Government of Canada, 2024)
Snapping turtle: Unknown, but thousands (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020)
-
Total: Roughly 69,200 to 96,200
Threats, Impacts, and Causes
How has the distribution and population of this species changed over the last two centuries?
In southern Canada, the overall range of caribou has contracted between 40% and 60%. Significant population declines have occurred (Festa-Bianchet et al., 2011). Caribou once ranged across the majority of Canada. Declines in population and range contractions have been uneven across sub-populations. Many sub-populations have faced dramatic declines. Within a few generations, entire herds have been extirpated from regions like the Canadian Maritimes, Haida Gwaii, and southern British Columbia. Most caribou populations in Canada continue to face declines.
What are the historic causes of the decline of this species/category?
Habitat disturbance and, to a lesser extent, human hunting are the primary causes of caribou decline across Canada.
What are the primary threats facing this species today?
Habitat loss and disturbance continue to be the most pressing threats to caribou populations in Canada. Recent research suggests that the intersecting threats of climate change, competition with other ungulates, and forest fires may all contribute to the decline of certain sub-populations (Tjaden-McClement et al., 2025). In the case of Arctic caribou, rapid climate change may increase summertime parasite loads and reduced sea ice cover may result in reduced habitat connectivity between Arctic islands (Mallory & Boyce, 2018).
How are the primary threats impacting the viability of the population?
The complex interplay of habitat disturbance and climate change can influence the rate of mortality in caribou. For example, unsustainable logging creates expansive networks of roads and cutblocks which may attract and facilitate the movement of other ungulate species such as deer and moose as well as their predators (e.g., wolves) (Tjaden-McClement et al., 2025). The increased presence of predators in forest-dwelling caribou habitat results in unsustainable predation rates for caribou populations which have not evolved to tolerate high levels of mortality.
Conservation Efforts
What conservation research has been conducted?
There are many diverse caribou research initiatives across Canada.
From 2013 to 2019, the National Council for Air and Stream Improvement (NCASI) studied the effects of forest management on caribou nutrition using a herd relocated from the University of Alaska Fairbanks to Canada.
In British Columbia, the provincial Caribou Recovery Program conducts monitoring of caribou populations and their habitats. This includes tracking herd sizes, health assessments and habitat conditions. Research by the University of Waterloo's School of Environment, Resources and Sustainability has focused on understanding the foraging behaviors of the Torngat Mountain Caribou herd in northern Labrador, providing insights into the ecological needs of this understudied population.
The 2012 Federal Recovery Strategy for Woodland Caribou identified 51 boreal caribou ranges across nine provinces and territories, with research focusing on their habitat needs and the impacts of disturbances like logging and infrastructure development.
Collectively, the aim of these studies and programs is to contribute to a comprehensive understanding of caribou ecology and inform conservation strategies across Canada.
Are there conservation actions and laws in place to protect this species?
Conservation actions stem from both governmental and grassroots initiatives.
1) Laws and regulatory frameworks:
SARA (Species at Risk Act): Once a caribou DU is listed, there is a legal obligation by the federal government to identify critical habitat for, protect, prepare a recovery strategy for, and monitor the herd.
Provincial regulations: B.C.’s Caribou Recovery Program or Alberta’s range plans require habitat thresholds, land-use planning, and guidance for forestry, oil, and gas activity in caribou range. The degree of enforcement and actual protection varies. Short-term strategies include predator reduction, penning, and feeding.
Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas (IPCAs): Some Indigenous communities are developing IPCAs to legally protect parts of traditional territory from industrial disturbance. These can include habitat protection for caribou.
2) Indigenous-led initiatives
The Dene Tha’ First Nation is leading conservation efforts in the Bistcho Lake region of northwest Alberta through initiatives like remote camera monitoring, Traditional Knowledge mapping, and a Guardians program. A key focus is the development of an IPCA to safeguard the Bistcho herd’s (DU7) range from industrial disturbance.
The Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation and Mikisew Cree First Nation have a Caribou Conservation Agreement under the federal Species at Risk Act (SARA), outlining specific conservation measures. A stewardship plan was developed, and feasibility studies are underway.
The Caribou Patrol is an Indigenous-led conservation initiative based in Grande Cache, Alberta, spearheaded by the Aseniwuche Winewak Nation (AWN). Established in 2012, the program aims to protect the dwindling woodland caribou populations, particularly along the critical migratory route of Highway 40.
3) Community and NGO efforts
David Suzuki Foundation: Engages in habitat restoration advocacy and public education to reduce industrial impacts and support caribou recovery.
Alberta Biodiversity Monitoring Institute (ABMI): Caribou Monitoring tracks populations, tests interventions, and analyzes land-use effects. Habitat restoration monitoring determines effectiveness of seismic line reforestation via field surveys, remote sensing, and wildlife use.
Wabakimi Boreal Caribou Citizen Monitoring Project (WBCCMP): Volunteers survey remote areas for signs of boreal caribou and contribute data to inform habitat protection and presence in under-surveyed areas.
Have actions been effective in the recovery of caribou?
The effectiveness of conservation actions for caribou in Canada has been variable, with some small improvements.
Habitat restoration efforts, such as seismic line reclamation in Alberta, have improved habitat connectivity and reduced predator access, supporting woodland populations.
Since the inception of the Indigenous-led Caribou Patrol collision prevention program, no caribou have been hit by vehicles during active patrols, demonstrating the initiative’s effectiveness.
Targeted predator management has shown short-term increases in calf survival, though it remains controversial. Additional research on moose populations following predator culls is also needed, as preliminary studies show reductions in wolves result in an increase of these ungulates that can add additional caribou stressors.
Programs like the Klinse-Za caribou recovery project demonstrate population stabilization and modest growth.
Despite some localized improvements, many caribou populations — especially migratory and woodland ecotypes — are still declining due to habitat fragmentation, climate change, and continued industrial development. According to federal reports, habitat conditions have worsened since 2012. Seven DUs have declined, and caribou hunting remains permitted in parts of Canada.
Integrated strategies combining Indigenous leadership, habitat restoration, legal protection, and scientific research offer the best prospects for meaningful recovery.
Future and Potential Solutions
What would a successful recovery for this species look like?
Successful restoration of caribou would depend on the particular population in question. For example, Lamb et al. (2023) affirm that species like caribou have significant cultural importance for Indigenous communities in Canada. Novel co-management conservation agreements between federal, provincial, and Indigenous governments offer the most promising recovery solutions. Indeed, a successful species recovery will be one which holistically considers the role of caribou within their respective ecosystem and upholds Canada’s commitments to Indigenous peoples (ex: United Nations Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples).
What immediate actions can people take to support this species' conservation?
Habitat protection and restoration are the unequivocal actions that must be taken to support the conservation of this species. Individuals can carefully consider which paper and wood products they purchase and ensure that these products do not contribute to unsustainable harvesting practices in the boreal forest.
How can sustainable practices help protect this species?
Protection of habitat is critical for caribou to persist in areas of low predation. The reduction of greenhouse gas emissions will be critical for all caribou in Canada, and perhaps even more important for Arctic-dwelling caribou that depend on specific environmental conditions to persist.
What role can education and awareness play in changing the public perception and treatment of this species?
By increasing the awareness of caribou conservation and the rampant resource extraction within critical caribou habitat, we can call upon provincial and federal authorities for stronger habitat protection.
